Did The Romans Take Recreational Drugs?
At length we took our places, and slaves from Alexandria poured iced water on our hands and other attendants for the feet came in and pared our toenails very carefully. And even during this unpleasant duty they were not silent, but continued to sing the whole time. I wanted to see whether the whole slave menage could sing, so I asked for a drink. A slave supplied it at once, singeing every bit as shrilly, as did anyone you asked to give you something; you would have thought it a theatrical troupe rather than a dining room in a private gentleman's house. All the same, the appetiser course was very elegantly served; for all but Trimalchio had now taken their places, the chief seat being reserved for the host after the latest fashion. Well, on the tray of relishes stood an ass made of Corinthian bronze, with two panniers, which contained white and black olives. This figure was flanked by two dishes, which had Trimalchio's name and the weight of the silver engraved on their edge; and on them were mounted salvers in the shape of little bridges, laden with dormice sprinkled with honey and poppyseed. There were also sausages smoking-hot on a silver gridiron, with damsons and pomegranates sliced up and placed beneath it.
(Petronius, Satyricon, xxxi.3)
Petronius' depiction of the lavish and decadent feast held by the vulgar novus homo (new man) Trimalchio in his classic work Satyricon is the epitome of the commonly held view of Roman excess. What could be more Roman than corpulent and vacuous rich people gadding about having their toenails trimmed by singing slaves whilst stuffing their perfumed cheeks with honeyed dormice? Satyricon is, of course, a satire on such excesses and is, therefore, an exaggeration, but satire only works if it carries an element of truth among the comedy.
These views of the Roman lifestyle appear more frequently in books, movies, TV shows and so on for obvious reasons. Nobody wants to watch a movie in which the emperor sits about eating cheese sandwiches and porridge, even though the majority of a normal Roman diet consisted of porridge and cheese sandwiches (sort of). In the same way that Rome is depicted as a society constantly at war or bashing each other over the head with wooden benches in the Senate House, so it is depicted as one in which gaudy excess was the norm.
In reality, such gluttony was frowned upon and seen as a fundamentally 'un-Roman' pursuit. That's why the uncouth Trimalchio is a figure of such derision. He represents a morality that runs counter to the straight-laced, rather Puritan morality that was espoused as the Roman ideal.
Having said that, Romans were humans every bit the same as us unruly modern lot, and getting shitfaced was still seen as enormous fun. Booze was the socially acceptable intoxicant of choice, but what else did the Romans do to get baked?
While much attention has been paid to the Roman use of wine and its role in social and religious rituals, less is known about their consumption of substances that align with modern definitions of recreational drugs. These substances, used primarily for pleasure or leisure rather than medicinal or religious purposes, offer a fascinating lens through which to explore Roman daily life and social practices.
So, did the Romans take recreational drugs, and if so, what were they?
The Romans were no strangers to psychoactive substances, many of which were integrated into their daily lives for medicinal, religious, and recreational purposes. The ancient world was rich in plants and compounds with psychoactive properties, and the Romans, inheriting knowledge from the Greeks, Egyptians, and other cultures, made extensive use of these substances. Primary sources such as Pliny the Elder's Naturalis Historia and Dioscorides' De Materia Medica provide detailed accounts of various plants and their effects, while Galen's medical texts offer insights into their therapeutic applications.
However, distinguishing between medicinal, religious, and recreational use is not always straightforward. Many substances served multiple purposes. For example, opium, derived from the poppy plant (Papaver somniferum), was widely used as a painkiller and sedative in Roman medicine but may also have been consumed for its euphoric effects. Similarly, cannabis, known to the Romans as cannabis sativa, was valued for its fibres in textile production but may also have been ingested or smoked for its psychoactive properties.
Archaeological evidence further enriches our understanding. Residue analysis of pottery and other artefacts has revealed traces of psychoactive substances, while depictions in art and literature hint at their cultural significance. Yet, the interpretation of such evidence is often challenging, as the line between recreational and other uses can be blurred.
Opium
Opium was one of the most widely used psychoactive substances in the Roman Empire. Pliny the Elder describes its cultivation and preparation, noting its effectiveness as a painkiller and sleep aid. The Roman physician Galen prescribed opium for a variety of ailments, from headaches to digestive disorders. However, opium's euphoric effects likely made it appealing for recreational use as well. While direct evidence of non-medicinal consumption is scarce, the widespread availability of opium and its potent effects suggest that it may have been used for pleasure, particularly among the elite. Opium was often mixed with wine, a practice referred to as vinum opiatum, which may have been used for more than just medicinal purposes. The extent of its abuse remains speculative, but its euphoric and addictive properties suggest that some individuals may have used it for pleasure.
Cannabis
Cannabis was another substance known to the Romans, though its use appears to have been more limited compared to opium. Dioscorides mentions cannabis in De Materia Medica, describing its use in making ropes and its potential medicinal applications. Some scholars argue that cannabis may have been consumed recreationally, particularly in regions such as Egypt, where its use as an intoxicant was documented in earlier periods. However, the evidence for recreational cannabis use in Rome is inconclusive, and its primary role seems to have been industrial rather than psychoactive. While concrete evidence remains elusive, the plant's psychoactive effects would not have gone unnoticed in a society with extensive trade networks connecting it to cultures where such use was more prevalent, such as the Scythians.
Hallucinogenic Mushrooms and Other Plants
The Romans were also familiar with a variety of plants and fungi with hallucinogenic properties. For example, mandrake (Mandragora officinarum) and henbane (Hyoscyamus niger) were known for their potent effects, which included hallucinations and delirium. These plants were often used in medicinal and ritual contexts, but their mind-altering properties may have also made them attractive for recreational use. The use of such substances was likely influenced by regional practices, particularly in provinces such as Gaul and Britain, where indigenous traditions persisted under Roman rule. Mandrake, for example, was often associated with inducing visions and deep sleep, and its inclusion in Roman pharmacology hints at potential leisure use. Henbane, known for its intoxicating effects, was used in both medicinal and magical contexts, raising questions about its broader application.
The Roman Empire's vast geographical and cultural diversity meant that the use of psychoactive substances varied significantly across regions. In Egypt, for example, the use of cannabis as an intoxicant was well-documented long before Roman rule, and it is likely that this practice continued under Roman administration. Similarly, in Gaul and Britain, indigenous traditions involving hallucinogenic plants such as henbane and belladonna may have persisted, blending with Roman practices.
In the eastern provinces, particularly in regions influenced by Persian and Greek traditions, the use of opium and other psychoactive substances was more prevalent. The Roman elite, who often adopted Eastern customs, may have been exposed to these practices through trade and cultural exchange. This regional variation highlights the complexity of Roman drug use and the influence of local traditions on broader imperial practices.
The use of psychoactive substances by notable Romans provides further insight into their cultural significance. For example, the emperor Marcus Aurelius, known for his Stoic philosophy, was said to have used opium to manage chronic pain, raising questions about the line between medicinal and recreational use. Similarly, the poet Ovid references the use of mind-altering substances in his works, suggesting that they were part of the cultural fabric of Roman society.
Marcus Aurelius took a daily dose of the 'universal antidote', theriac (Galen, On Antidotes 14.3-5K). He took theriac in a dose equivalent in size to one Egyptian bean (kuamos) with water or wine. An Egyptian bean was probably the fruit of the lotus plant (Nelumbrium speciosum), not a true bean, but something about the size of a broad bean.
This substance was first prepared in Egypt in the 3rd century BC, and the name theriac is derived from a poem (Theriaca) by Nicander of Colophon (2nd century BC), written for the king of Pergamon. The name derives from the Greek word thêrion, a wild animal.
Mithridates Eupator, king of Pontus, improved the recipe – his famous mithridatium consisted of 41 ingredients, including viper flesh and the juice of Papaverum somniferum, the opium poppy. A century later Nero's personal doctor, Andromachus, came up with a version with 55 ingredients.
Galen, Marcus Aurelius' physician, had a few recipes for theriac, which now contained more than 70 items. In his On Antidotes Galen gives a detailed list of the ingredients and explains how the mixture was boiled in wine, the residue separated and allowed to mature for between 40 and 12 years. There is no doubt that Marcus Aurelius ingested a daily dose of opium with his theriac. The question is whether he did so recreationally or because he was, famously, constantly in pain due to a variety of afflictions.
The philosopher Seneca, while critical of excess, acknowledged the role of substances in achieving altered states of consciousness, particularly in religious contexts. These examples illustrate the nuanced attitudes toward psychoactive substances among the Roman elite and their integration into both personal and public life.
The Roman attitude toward recreational drug use was shaped by a combination of cultural norms and legal regulations. While the use of psychoactive substances for medicinal and religious purposes was generally accepted, recreational use may have been viewed with suspicion, particularly if it led to excessive behaviour or social disorder.
Roman law did not explicitly regulate recreational drug use in the way modern societies do, but certain substances were subject to restrictions. For example, the cultivation of opium poppies was controlled to prevent misuse, and the sale of potentially dangerous substances was monitored. However, enforcement of such regulations was likely inconsistent, and recreational use may have been tolerated in private settings.
Social attitudes toward recreational drug use also varied across different strata of Roman society. Among the elite, the consumption of psychoactive substances may have been seen as a mark of sophistication, while among the lower classes, it could be associated with vice and moral decay. This dichotomy reflects broader Roman concerns about excess and self-control, which were central to their moral and philosophical discourse.
The recreational use of psychoactive substances in ancient Rome shares some similarities with modern practices but also differs in significant ways. Like contemporary societies, the Romans used a variety of substances for pleasure, and their consumption was influenced by cultural and social factors. However, the range of substances available to the Romans was more limited, and their use was often intertwined with medicinal and religious practices.
One notable difference is the absence of certain substances that are common today, such as cocaine and heroin, which were unknown in the ancient world. Conversely, the Romans used some substances, such as mandrake and henbane, that have largely fallen out of use due to their toxicity and unpredictable effects. The decline of these substances reflects advances in pharmacology and a greater understanding of their risks.
Roman philosophical views on pleasure, excess, and self-control provide valuable context for understanding their attitudes toward recreational drug use. Stoic philosophers such as Seneca and Epictetus emphasised moderation and self-discipline, warning against the dangers of indulgence. At the same time, Epicurean philosophy, which advocated for the pursuit of pleasure, may have provided a more permissive framework for the use of psychoactive substances.
These philosophical debates reflect broader societal tensions between individual freedom and social responsibility, themes that remain relevant in modern discussions about drug use. The Roman experience underscores the enduring complexity of these issues and the challenges of balancing personal autonomy with collective well-being.
Interpreting the historical evidence for Roman recreational drug use presents several challenges. Ancient texts often lack the precision of modern scientific writing, and descriptions of psychoactive substances can be ambiguous or metaphorical. For example, references to "magic" or "divine" plants may indicate hallucinogenic properties, but their exact identity and use remain uncertain.
Archaeological evidence, while valuable, is also limited. Organic materials such as plants and resins rarely survive in the archaeological record, and traces of psychoactive substances are difficult to detect. Even when such traces are found, their context may not clearly indicate recreational use.
The evidence suggests that the Romans did indeed use psychoactive substances for recreational purposes, albeit in ways that were often intertwined with medicinal and religious practices. Substances such as opium, cannabis, and hallucinogenic plants were known to the Romans and may have been consumed for their pleasurable effects, particularly among the elite. However, the cultural and legal attitudes toward recreational drug use were complex, reflecting broader Roman concerns about morality and self-control.
References and Further Reading
Dioscorides. (2000). De Materia Medica (L. Y. Beck, Trans.). Hildesheim: Olms-Weidmann.
Galen. (2016). On Antidotes (R. J. Hankinson, Trans.). In Galen: Works on Human Nature (Cambridge Texts in the History of Philosophy). Cambridge University Press.
Pliny the Elder. (1938). Natural History (H. Rackham, Trans.). Loeb Classical Library. Harvard University Press. Petronius. (1996). Satyricon (P. G. Walsh, Trans.). Oxford University Press.
Seneca. (2015). Letters on Ethics: To Lucilius (M. Graver & A. A. Long, Trans.). University of Chicago Press.
Dalby, A. (2003). Food in the Ancient World from A to Z. Routledge.
Goodman, J., Sherratt, A., & Lovejoy, P. E. (Eds.). (2007). Consuming Habits: Drugs in History and Anthropology. Routledge.
Scarborough, J. (1995). Roman Medicine. Cornell University Press.
Riddle, J. M. (1985). Dioscorides on Pharmacy and Medicine. University of Texas Press.
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