What Musical Instruments Did the Romans Play?

Musicians with cornua and a water organ, detail from the Zliten mosaic, 2nd century AD

Perhaps the most famous incident of musical instrument playing in Roman history was Nero 'fiddling' whilst Rome burnt, a tale that is the result of a simple misreading of the sources. In AD 64, whilst Rome went up in flames, Nero was not even in the city but at his villa in Antium. Moreover, the fiddle was 1,400 years away from being invented, although there was a rumour that, on hearing of the blaze, he took to the stage to sing a lament about the destruction of Troy (Tacitus, Annals, XV.39). Given his reputation as an artiste and his prevalence for having soldiers whack people who complained about his singing, the private audience might have preferred taking their chances with the flames.

A few years later, Nero, having been told by astrologers that his reign was doomed to end in failure (Suetonius, Nero, 40), seemed quite nonchalant as Julius Vindex decided that it was time to start the rebellion that would, ultimately, lead to the emperor's demise. Finally, convinced by the Senate that he might want to do something about Vindex, Nero didn't seem to be in much of a rush. To be fair to him, Vindex didn't pose a particularly terrifying prospect - not at first, anyway - and Nero had another thing to be excited about. He briefly dealt with the Senate's concerns regarding Vindex and then spent the rest of the day regaling his companions with excited chatter about his new toy, a water-powered organ known as the hydraulis. He showed them all how it worked and what all the moving parts did and enthusiastically put forward his plans to play one in the theatre once Vindex had been splattered into submission.

Suetonius (Nero, 41) uses the term organa hydraulica, and it seems to have been an instrument built on the same principle as modern church organs, only that hydraulic power was used to force air through the pipes.

According to Vitruvius, the instrument was invented by Ctesibius of Alexandria in the 3rd century BC, but it was the Romans who perfected and popularised its use.

The hydraulis operated by using a hydraulic system to maintain consistent air pressure. Water was used to stabilise the air supply, which was then directed through a series of pipes to produce sound. Vitruvius provides a technical description of the instrument, explaining how the combination of water and air pressure allowed for a continuous and controlled musical output. This innovation was a significant advancement over earlier wind instruments, which relied on manual breath control and were limited in their range and volume.

The hydraulis consisted of several key components:

• The wind chest: A chamber that held the air supply.

• The water tank: Used to regulate air pressure through hydraulic principles.

• The pipes: Made of bronze or wood, these produced the sound when air passed through them.

• The keyboard: A series of levers that controlled the flow of air to specific pipes, allowing the player to produce different notes.

Tertullian describes one in some detail:

"... I mean his hydraulic organ, with its many limbs, parts, bands, passages for the notes, outlets for their sounds, combinations for their harmony, and the array of its pipes; but yet the whole of these details constitute only one instrument. In like manner the wind, which breathes throughout this organ at the impulse of the hydraulic engine, is not divided into separate portions from the fact of its dispersion through the instrument to make it play: it is whole and entire in its substance, although divided in its operation."

(De Anima, xiv)

Nero, who was an excitable chap at the best of times, was fascinated as much by the mechanical genius of the device as much as its musical properties. This was a bloke who, on deciding to have his mother assassinated, ordered his lackeys to build a whole series of Heath Robinson (Rube Goldberg for our Colonial Cousins) style death traps in order to have her bumped off. He built a falling tile trap to squash her as she slept, which she discovered when, presumably, a bunch of blokes turned up to have it installed in her bedroom. He then built a bizarre collapsing boat designed to fall apart at sea and toss her to a watery end, only to be surprised at his mother's ability to swim back to shore untouched (Tac. Ann. XIV.3). In the end, he had her stabbed.

Unlike a barrel organ, the hydraulis was played using a keyboard, likely making it the first keyboard instrument ever invented. The keys could be played with a light touch, and the resulting sound was deep and impressive, as described in a poem by Claudian from the late 4th century:

"... magna levi detrudens murmura tactu... intonet ..."

"let him thunder forth as he presses out mighty roarings with a light touch"

(Paneg. Manlio Theodoro, 320–22)

The lyre was one of the most ubiquitous musical instruments in ancient Rome, with a history that predated the Roman Empire itself. Derived from Greek and Etruscan traditions, the lyre was a stringed instrument typically made from wood, with strings of varying materials such as gut or sinew. It was played by plucking the strings, often with a plectrum, and was known for its melodic and harmonious sound.

In Roman society, the lyre was closely associated with domestic life and education. It was a common instrument in households, where it was played during private gatherings and banquets. The lyre was also an essential tool in the education of Roman youth, particularly in the study of poetry and music. Young boys from affluent families were often taught to play the lyre as part of their liberal arts education, which emphasised the cultivation of both intellectual and artistic skills.

The lyre's association with poetry and literature further cemented its cultural significance. Roman poets such as Horace and Ovid frequently referenced the lyre in their works, using it as a metaphor for artistic inspiration and creativity. The instrument's gentle and melodic sound made it ideal for accompanying recitations of poetry, creating a harmonious blend of words and music.

Archaeological evidence, such as frescoes and mosaics, provides further insight into the lyre's role in Roman society. Depictions of lyre players can be found in various domestic settings, from private villas to public spaces, underscoring the instrument's widespread popularity. These artistic representations also highlight the lyre's association with leisure and refinement, making it a symbol of Roman cultural sophistication.

The tibiae, or Roman pipes, were another important category of musical instruments in ancient Rome. These wind instruments, typically made from wood or bone, consisted of a series of tubes with finger holes that allowed the player to produce different notes. The tibiae were often played in pairs, with one pipe in each hand, and were known for their piercing and resonant sound.

The tibiae played a significant role in Roman religious rituals, where they were used to accompany sacrifices and processions. The instrument's loud and penetrating sound was believed to ward off evil spirits and attract the attention of the gods. In this context, the tibiae were not merely musical instruments but also tools of spiritual communication.

In addition to their religious functions, the tibiae were also used in theatrical performances and military contexts. In the theatre, the tibiae provided musical accompaniment for plays and pantomimes, enhancing the dramatic impact of the performances. In the military, the tibiae were used to convey signals and commands during battles and marches. The instrument's ability to produce loud and clear notes made it an effective means of communication in the chaos of the battlefield.

The tibiae's versatility and adaptability made them a staple of Roman musical culture. Whether in the context of religious ceremonies, theatrical performances, or military campaigns, the tibiae played a vital role in shaping the auditory landscape of ancient Rome.

Drums, known as tympanum in Latin, were another important category of Roman musical instruments. These percussion instruments were typically made from animal skins stretched over a wooden frame and were played by striking the surface with the hands or sticks. The tympanum produced a deep and resonant sound that was well-suited for rhythmic accompaniment.

The tympanum was widely used in Roman processions, dances, and religious rituals. Its rhythmic sound provided a steady beat that helped to coordinate the movements of participants in these events. In religious contexts, the tympanum was often associated with the worship of deities such as Cybele and Dionysus, whose cults emphasised ecstatic and rhythmic music.

In addition to its religious and ceremonial uses, the tympanum also played a role in military contexts. The instrument's powerful and rhythmic sound made it an effective tool for maintaining discipline and coordination during marches and drills. The tympanum's ability to produce a steady and commanding beat made it an indispensable part of the Roman military's musical repertoire.

The musical instruments of ancient Rome did not develop in isolation; they were heavily influenced by the musical traditions of the Greeks and Etruscans. The lyre, for example, was directly borrowed from the Greeks, who considered it a symbol of Apollo, the god of music and poetry. Similarly, the tibiae had their origins in Etruscan culture, where they were used in religious and funerary contexts.

The Romans adapted these instruments to suit their own cultural needs, often modifying their design and function. For instance, while the Greek lyre was primarily used in poetic recitations, the Romans expanded its use to include domestic entertainment and education. Similarly, the tibiae, which were originally used in Etruscan funeral processions, were repurposed by the Romans for military and theatrical performances.

This cultural exchange highlights the Romans' ability to assimilate and adapt foreign innovations, creating a unique musical tradition that reflected their own values and priorities.

The status of musicians in Roman society varied widely depending on their role and context. Professional musicians, particularly those who played at public spectacles and religious ceremonies, were often highly respected and well-compensated. However, many musicians were enslaved individuals who performed for the entertainment of their owners.

The lyre, for example, was often associated with freeborn citizens who played it as part of their education or leisure activities. In contrast, the tibiae and tympanum were frequently played by enslaved or lower-class individuals, particularly in military and religious contexts.

This social hierarchy reflects the broader inequalities of Roman society, where access to music and musical education was often determined by one's social status.

Music played a significant role in many key events in Roman history. For example, during triumphal processions, musicians would accompany the victorious general and his army, creating a celebratory atmosphere. Similarly, music was an essential part of Roman funerals, where it was used to honour the deceased and comfort the living.

The reign of Emperor Nero provides a particularly striking example of the intersection between music and politics. Nero's love of music and performance was well-documented, and he often used music as a tool to enhance his public image. However, his obsession with the hydraulis and other instruments also drew criticism from his contemporaries, who viewed it as a distraction from his duties as emperor.

The musical instruments of ancient Rome had a lasting impact on the development of Western music. The hydraulis, for example, is considered a precursor to the modern pipe organ, and its hydraulic principles influenced later innovations in musical technology. Similarly, the lyre and tibiae served as models for medieval and Renaissance instruments, such as the lute and the shawm.

Through their music, the Romans expressed their values, beliefs, and aspirations, creating an enduring legacy that continues to resonate today. The study of Roman musical instruments not only provides insight into the technological and artistic achievements of the ancient world but also offers a window into the daily lives and experiences of the people who shaped one of history's most remarkable civilisations.

References and Further Reading

Claudian. Panegyricus de Sexto Consulatu Honorii Augusti

Suetonius. The Lives of the Twelve Caesars.

Tertullian. De Spectaculis.

Vitruvius. De Architectura.

Ovid. Metamorphoses.

Horace. Odes.

Pliny the Elder. Naturalis Historia.

Tacitus. Annals

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